CANNIBALISM IN THE MALAY WORLD: MYTH OR FACT?

“It is perfectly possible to argue that some distinctive objects are made by the mind, and that these objects, while appearing to exist objectively, have only fictional reality. A group of people living on a few acres of land will set up boundaries between their land and its immediate surroundings and the territory beyond, which they call 'the land of barbarians.' In other words, this universal practice of designating in one’s mind a familiar space which is 'ours' and an unfamiliar space beyond 'ours' which is 'theirs' is a way of making geographical distinctions that can be entirely arbitrary. I use the word 'arbitrary' here because imaginative geography of the 'our land-barbarian land' variety does not require that the barbarians acknowledge the distinction. It is enough for 'us' to set up these boundaries in our own minds; 'they' become 'they' accordingly, and both their territory and their mentality are designated as different from 'ours'.”

[Edward Said, Orientalism, New York: Vintage Books, 1979, p.54.]

History of European encounter with the community of peoples that consumed their equals (human flesh) was popular to the medieval Europeans in view of the fact that this phenomenon had been known since the ancient times. Herodotus, famous Greek historian had described a group of people who consuming the deceased bodies that belonged to their own communities known as the Androphagoi or Androphopagoi and this group of people lived in the northern parts of Scythian, which was ‘far away’ from Greece (Iris Gareis, “Cannibals, Bons Sauvages, and tasty white men: Models of alterity in the encounter of South American Tupi and Europeans,” The Medieval History Journal, 5, 2, (2002), pp. 251-252.). In the modern context, the act of consuming human flesh is commonly known as cannibalism and this practice is usually pictured “while dismembering or cutting up human bodies and busy with the roasting or cooking of their victims” (Iris Gareis, p.252).

The origin of the word cannibal which is associated with the practice of eating human flesh could be traced back to 1492 C.E., during the historical voyage of Christopher Columbus who discovered America. Based on the information that was given by his interpreter who gathered the story from the indigenous group of Arawak of Cuba, the Arawak is defining their rivals, the Carib, as having only one eye with heads like dogs and they ate human flesh. At this very early stage, Christopher Columbus had second hand information concerning some of the inhabitants on the Caribbean Island (Frank Lestringant, Canibals: The discovery and representation of the Canibal from Columbus to Jules Verne, trans. by Rosemary Morris, Cambridge: Polity Press, 1997, p. 15).

The word cannibal then is believed to have come from the misinterpretation of cariba, the word which portrays the barbarity of the Carib, which was given by their neighboring enemy, the Arawak. For the Carib themselves, cariba means ‘bold’ and ‘courage’. Through time, the Arawak had transformed this word to caniba where the Spanish recognized it as cannibal (Iris Gareis, p. 250). The latter word by the Spanish reflects the meaning of cannibalism which was familiar with the modern sense of its usage.

Does the practice of cannibalism exist in the Malay World? Accounts by European travelers to this archipelago kept mentioning the Europeans encounter with peoples from this region who consume the flesh of their equals. This group of peoples from the Malay World was depicted as beast, savages and idolaters; to some extent this group even was described as having heads like dogs!. Is it this notion is a myth or fact?

As stated in Itinerario of Varthema in describing the cannibalistic tradition which occurred in Java during the first quarter of the 16th century, was as follows:

“The people in this island who eat flesh, when their fathers become so old that they can no longer do any work, their children or relations set them up in the market-place for sale, and those who purchase them kill them and eat them cooked. And if any young man should be attacked by any great sickness, and that it should appear to the skillful that he might die of it, the father or the brother of the sickman kills him, and they do not wait for him to die. And when they have killed him they sell him to others to be eaten. We, being astonished at such a thing, some merchants of the country said to us: “O your poor Persians, why do you have such charming flesh to be eaten by the worms?” My companion hearing this immediately exclaimed: “Quick, quick, let us go to our ship, for these people shall never more come near me on land.”[Ludovico di Varthema, The travels of Ludovico di Varthema in Egypt, Syria, Arabia Deserta and Arabia Felix, in Persia, India and Ethopia, A.D. 1503-1508, translated by J.W. Jones & edited by G.P. Badger. In Fuat Sezgin (ed.), In The Islamic World in foreign travel accounts, vol II. Institute for the History of Arabic-Islamic Science at the Johann Wolfgang Goethe University Frankfurt am Main, 1994. (Reprint of the Edition London, 1853), 255-257.]

Then, Sir John Mandeville in his Travels which was published between 1357 and 1371, in elaborating the custom that belonged to the man-eaters in Andaman Island, which was portrayed as:

“They live here a people of evil customs, for fathers eat their sons and sons their fathers, husbands their wives and wives their husbands. For if it chance that a man’s father is sick, the son goes to the priest of their religion and ask him to inquire of their god-who is an idol-whether his father will live or die of that sickness. And the devil within that idol may answer that he will not die at that time, and indicates some medicines to heal him with; then the son returns to his father and does as instructed until he is well again. But it says he will die, the priest and the son and the wife of the sick man come to him and throw a cloth over his mouth and stop him breathing, and kill him. When he is dead they take his body and cut it in little pieces, and summon all his friends, and all the musicians they can get, and make a solemn feast and eat the dead man’s body. And when they have eaten all the flesh, they collect all the bones together and bury them according to their custom with great solemnity and loud singing. And thus each friend does to another; and if so happen that a man who is a relation of the dead man keeps away from the feast and comes not to the funeral, all the family will accuse him of a serious fault, and he will never after be counted among their friends. They say that they eat the flesh of their friend so that worms should not eat him in earth, and to release him from the great pain that his soul would suffer if worms gnawed him in the earth. They also say, when they find his flesh lean through long illness, that it would be a great sin to allow him to live longer or suffer pain without a cause. If they find his flesh fat, they say they have done well to have killed him so quickly and sent him to Paradise, not allowing him to be tormented too long in is world.” [John Mandeville, The travels of Sir John Mandeville, translated by C.W.R.D. Moseley, (London: Penguin Classics, 1983), 136-137.]

And finally, account by the famous Venetian merchant and traveler, Marco Polo, in picturing the custom of consuming human flesh in the kingdom of Dagroian, which he located in Sumatra during the 13th century as stated:

“When one of them is ill they send for their sorcerers, and put the question to them, whether the sick man shall recover of his sickness or no. If they say that he will recover, then they let him alone till he gets better. But if the sorcerers foretell that the sick man is to die, the friends send for certain judges of theirs to put to death him who has thus been condemned by the sorcerers to die. These man come, and lay so many clothes upon the sick man’s mouth that they suffocate him. And when he is dead they have him cooked, and gather together all the dead man’s kin, and eat him. And I assure you they do suck the very bones till not a particle of narrow remains in them; for they say that if any nourishment remained in the bones this would breed worms, and then the worms would die for want of food, and the death of those worms would be laid to the change of the deceased man’s soul. And so they eat him up stump and rump. And when they have thus eaten him they collect his bones and put them in fire chests, and carry them away, and place them in caverns among the mountains where no beast nor other creature can get at them. And you must know also that if they take prisoners a man of another country, and he cannot pay a ransom in coin, they kill him and eat him straight away. It is a very evil custom and a parlous.” [Marco Polo, The book of Ser Marco Polo,vol. II, Henry Yule & Henry Cordier (ed. and trans.), (New Delhi: Munshiram Manoharlal, 1993), 294].

Now come to the arguments to see whether this notion is simply as myth or fact. First of all, Varthema, Sir John Mandeville, Marco Polo or other travelers did not generalize all inhabitants of the Malay World lived in gore and cannibalistic atmosphere, but it confined to certain areas in the region. As Marco Polo as a case study, peoples who live in remote areas and islands as Sumatra, Java, Nicobar and Andaman were consider as beast and idolaters, and some of them practiced cannibalism. Marco Polo illustrates beast and idolaters in his accounts did exist in different places in Sumatra, in particular, the hill-people of Ferlec or Perlak who lived like beasts where they ate human flesh (Marco Polo, The book of Ser Marco Polo, vol. II, Henry Yule & Henry Cordier (ed. and trans.), New Delhi: Munshiram manoharlal, 1993, p. 284). The people of Basma then were just like beast without laws and religion (Marco Polo, p. 285), while the people of Fansur and Lambri were both considered as idolaters (Marco Polo, p. 299). Syed Manzurul Islam in his book The Ethics of Travel from Marco Polo to Kafka attested that the term of ‘beast’ or ‘idolaters’ in medieval European travel narratives were generally as metaphors to portray the savagery of the people. This term also appears as a reflection of majority of medieval European understanding on the population of the world. During the medieval times, the off-limits of the East/Asia known to them is Taprobane (Greek word, originally from Sanskrit tamraparn means cooper leaf, located in Ceylon or Sri Lanka today). Region beyond and farther than Taprobane was considered as unknown land/ terra incognita. The inhabitants of this terra incognita were totally different and unequal to Europe, whether in the way of life, or even the physical beings. In order to describe the dwellers of terra incognita, there are no choices for them to present this population as normal as human beings, or as normal as European. As result, there exist a people as having heads like dogs/ cynocephali who ate human flesh and series more monstrous beings/ homo monstrum. Terra incognita must have been described as ‘others’!.

Second argument has a relation with the former. Descriptions of strangeness such as European encounter with monstrous races, cynocephali or man-eaters (cannibals) usually could be spotted in new found land. Herodotus described Androphagoi lived ‘far away’ from Greece, that is in northern Scythian. This is probably happened because the northern Scythian is unknown to the people of Greece, or Greece chooses to isolate themselves from the Northern Scythian. This phenomenon indirectly gives a notion that the farther Europeans/ human beings explore their world, the enormous chances they will confront the strangeness. That is the reason why in different epochs of medieval European history of exploration, they will discover a lot and new version of strangeness. Strangeness founded in India, than move to Persia, further to Scandinavia, then to Asia, to South America so on and so forth (nowadays it perhaps evolved to a new level after entire world already discovered, that is Mars).

Finally, as stated in accounts of Varthema in 16th century, Sir John Mandeville in 14th century and Marco Polo in 13th century in describing of cannibalistic rituals in the Malay Archipelago, these accounts have a consistency in structure and story line. You don’t have to be a genius to notice this similarity. What is the explanation for this ‘similarity’? Travelers might continue the tradition of their predecessors in jotted down their descriptions on cannibalism in this region. Travelers might find a ‘short-cut’ by copying and putting a strange tradition to fulfill the thirst of European for the story of new exotic things. And perhaps the farthest these travelers go is a nearest library to their home.

In short, based on these arguments, the story of cannibalism in the Malay World is just might a story and the story that ahistorical one. Malay World in 13th to 16th century is hardly to perceive as an idolaters region, moreover as a region that practice cannibalism. Marco Polo in 13th century had described his encounters with Saracen/ Muslims in Perlak. Islam also was recorded to have been established in Sulu Archipelago, an area located in modern Philippines. Sulu Archipelago which is comprised of islands namely Basilan, Jolo and Tawi-tawi, were believed to receive Islam as early as the 14th century. The establishment of the Muslim Sultanate here started with the inter-marriage between Shariful Islam, an Arab Muslim trader and the daughter of the Jolo king and Shariful Islam later established the Islamic Sulu Sultanate in the 15th century. While in 16th century, Varthema described his meeting with Malacca Sultan who is a Muslim, so as his kingdom. Long story short, is that cannibalism in the Malay World is a myth or fact? I consider the former.

PLUS: Mitos cannibalism adalah fenomena universal. Cerita cannibalism wujud di merata tempat seperti di Kepulauan Melayu, India, Selatan Brazil etc. Mitos ini melahirkan banyak versi filem2 cannibal macam Cannibal Holocaust, Cannibal Ferox etc. Mitos2 ini juga menjadi dasar kepada pemikiran colonial2 barat yang rasa terpanggil untuk memajukan bangsa2 ‘primitif’ di seluruh dunia dengan ‘White’s Man Burden’ sebagai justifikasi mereka. Mitos2 ini berkembang sejajar dengan peredaran masa. Orang2 British mula mencipta mitos bahawa penduduk kepulauan Melayu masih bersikap dengan penuh ‘kelanunan’, dan penduduk kepulauan Melayu juga pemalas. Allahyarhan Syed Hussein Alatas menulis sebuah buku yang bagus bagi mereka yang ingin mengetahui cerita mitos orang2 putih dalam The Myth of Lazy Natives.

SOURCE: zulkifli ishak, before December 2009.

CLASSICAL MALAY LITERATURE: A SHORT NOTES

“The fact that the Malay-Muslim political treatise Taj-us Salatin existed nearly half a century before Hobbes’ Leviathan would make it difficult for anyone to suggest that the Malays were in need of instruction in matters political, historical or economics”.
[Farish A. Noor, The Other Malaysia: Writing on Malaysia’s Subaltern History, Kuala Lumpur: Silverfish Books, 2005, p. 39]

Arabic script/alphabet/harf was adapted by the Malays as the medium of writings (later known as jawi writings). Five new letters were added in order to make suit with certain Malay words and pronunciations; these five give a sound as ca – nga – pa – ga – nya (i.e.for usage like ca for cawan, means cup). The adaptation of Arabic scripts later enriched the vocabulary of Malay language itself, thus it is not uncommon that Malay language have a similarity in words and meanings that originally from Arabic (i.e. kitab, wakaf, kubur, etc.).

It was believed that the earliest writings produced in the Malay language/jawi writings were in the form of religious books called kitab or risalah. Kitab or risalah have purposes as a religious instruction, and the earliest amongst them related with the basic teachings of Islam as shahadah, pilgrimage to Makkah, arkan al-Iman, etc. By time, advanced writings on various Islamic studies were produced by Muslims scholars on topics of Islamic laws, Al-Qur’an, hadith, theology and Sufism.

Together with this production, Malay language stands as a standard medium of communication, standard language to propagate Islamic teachings as well as a lingua franca that used throughout the Archipelago. The advent of Islam with its teaching to spread the message of Islam simultaneously helps to consolidate the using of this language in the region.

The adaptation and the influence of Arabic and Persian literatures contributed to the enrichment of classical Malay literature. Apart from the adaptation of vocabulary, Malay World also imported the forms and styles of poetry; for example the Arabic shi’ir (in Arabs tradition, shi’ir=poetry, sha’ir=people who read that poetry, qasidah=a whole complete poetry, bait=line from poetry). From Arabic shi’ir later emerge the Malay World ‘syair’.

By 18th century, Malay syair were transmuted into all categories of Malay literatures such as religious works, Malay historiography and hikayat. With method of syair, it offers an alternative other than just plain story to deliver the message of Islam. In 17th century, Malay syair employed to describe the historical events (Malay historiography). Malay hikayat such as Kalilah wa Dimnah and Hikayat Bakhtiyar also appeared as a reproduction of Persian literatures Kalilah wa Dimnah and Bakhtiyar Namah.

Some other forms of Malay classical literature that were inspired by the Arabs, Persian and Indian literatures encapsulated in various themes. One of it is a story of romances that told stories about Muslim kings and queens, together with their princess and princesses. This theme usually storied adventurous of love, war and struggle for the establishment of justice. Examples could be seen in Hikayat Mahmud Ghaznawi and Hikayat Sultan Moghul.

Besides, there are two well-known works which were written as the instruction to the Malay Sultans; there are Taj al-Salatin and Bustan al-Salatin. Taj al-Salatin (The Crown of Kings) was produced by Bukhari al-Jauhari in 1603 AD. Although its title was written in Arabic but the contents of this ‘political guide’ was written in Malay language. Taj al-Salatin contains examples of Muslim kings and pious man of olden time. Author added the Islamic preaching and values to his writing as a warning to his readers about the painful punishment in the Day of the Judgement for those who against Allah’s command.

While in Bustan al-Salatin (The Garden of Kings), it’s served as the instruction to the kings. This work that was written by Shaykh Nur al-Din al-Raniri was divided into seven chapters that dealing with the creation, prophets and kings, just kings and clever ministers, heroes, all kinds of sciences etc.. Shaykh Nur al-Din al-Raniri based most of his subject matter on Islamic teachings.

VI. EN ROUTE TO MAKKAH: PILGRIMS' VOICES THROUGHOUT THE CENTURIES (ADMIRAL ZHENG HE)

ADMIRAL ZHENG HE
CHINA
HAJJ 1431-1433 AD / 834-836 AH


Admiral Zheng He (1371-1433 AD/ 772 – 836 AH) was born in Yunnan province in 1371 AD/ 772 AH, and was raised in a Muslim noble family. ‘Zheng He’ was an honorific given by the Yongle Emperor in appreciation of his excellent services to the imperial court. His surname, Ma, is an indication that he was a Muslim. His father, known as ‘Ma Haji’, provided stirring tales of his own adventures en route to Mecca. On Zheng He’s seventh and last voyage he finally reached the Holy City. The seventh voyage of Admiral Zheng He covered a wide area, stretching from the Malay Archipelago to Mogadishu in Africa. On the way back from Mecca, it has been reported that Zheng He died of illness. His ships were filled with exotic produce and rare animals, but the admiral’s body never returned to his home country. Based on sea-faring tradition, he was buried at the sea.

The Epitaph of Ancestor Ma, also known as Tablet of Ma Haji, is one of the most important artefacts that prove Zheng He’s genealogical background. This tablet stated that: “Zheng He was ambitious from young”. His father, Ma Haji, considered Zheng He to be intelligent and possessed of a good memory. He was fond of classic books as well as martial arts. His level of curiosity was astonishingly mature. Zheng He frequently asked his father and his grandfather about their experiences and adventure while performing Al-Hajj pilgrimage. This perhaps made the allure of Mecca irresistible.

LAKSAMANA ZHENG HE
CHINA
IBADAH HAJI 1431-1433 M / 834-836 H

Laksamana Zheng He (1371 – 1433 M/ 772 – 836 H) telah dilahirkan di daerah Yunnan pada 1371 M/ 772 H dan dibesarkan di dalam sebuah keluarga bangsawan Islam. ‘Zheng He’ ialah gelaran penghormatan yang dianugerahkan oleh maharaja Yongle di atas khidmat cemerlangnya kepada pihak istana. Ma’ ialah nama keluarga Islam. Ayah Zheng He yang dikenali sebagai Haji Ma telah menceritakan pengembaraannya yang menakjubkan ketika dalam perjalanan ke Makkah. Dalam pelayarannya yang ke tujuh dan yang terakhir (1432-1433 M/ 835 – 836 H), akhirnya Zheng He telah sampai ke Tanah Suci. Pelayaran ke tujuh Laksamana Zheng He melibatkan kawasan yang luas, meliputi Kepulauan Melayu hingga ke Mogadishu di Afrika. Sewaktu dalam perjalanan pulang dari Makkah, Zheng He dilaporkan telah meninggal dunia kerana diserang penyakit. Kapal-kapalnya dipenuhi dengan pelbagai barangan yang luar biasa dan pelbagai haiwan yang jarang ditemui. Jenazah Laksamana Zheng He tidak dibawa pulang ke kampung halamannya. Mengikut tradisi pelayaran, jasad beliau disemadikan di dalam laut.

Epitaf nenek moyang Ma, juga di kenali sebagai Batu Bersurat Haji Ma merupakan sebuah artifak yang paling penting bagi menunjukkan latarbelakang salasilah Zheng He. Batu bersurat ini telah menyatakan bahawa: “Zheng He ialah seorang yang bercita-cita tinggi semenjak dia masih muda”. Ayahnya, Haji Ma, yang meninggal dunia pada 1344 M/ 745 H ketika berusia tiga puluh sembilan tahun menggambarkan Zheng He sebagai seorang yang cerdik dan memiliki daya ingatan yang baik. Anak lelakinya begitu menggemari karya klasik dan juga seni mempertahankan diri. Sifat ingin tahu yang dimilikinya sememangnya menunjukkan kematangan. Zheng He kerap mengajukan pertanyaan kepada ayah dan datuknya berkenaan dengan pengalaman dan cabaran yang mereka alami semasa menunaikan ibadah haji. Kemungkinan inilah yang menyebabkan keinginannya untuk ke Makkah sangat kuat.

SOURCE: Teks ini adalah hak milik Islamic Arts Museum Malaysia (IAMM). Teks adalah panel pameran 'En Route to Mecca: Pilgrims' Voices throughout the Centuries' IAMM. Writer and researcher: Mr. Zulkifli Ishak/ English editor: Mr. Lucien de Guise/ Malay editor: Mrs. Ros Mahwati Ahmad Zakaria.

V. EN ROUTE TO MAKKAH: PILGRIMS' VOICES THROUGHOUT THE CENTURIES (SIKANDAR, THE BEGUM OF BHOPAL)

HER HIGHNESS SIKANDAR,
THE BEGUM OF BHOPAL
INDIA
HAJJ 1864 AD / 1280 AH

Bhopal, a Muslim state in pre-independence India was governed by four women rulers between the years 1819 AD/ 1234 AH and 1926 AD/ 1344 AH. Nawab Sikandar Begum’s pilgrimage to Mecca in 1864 AD/ 1280 AH is acknowledged as the first Hajj account recorded by a regent. Sikandar Begum set sail for Mecca in late 1863 AD/ 1279 AH, with her mother, Qudsia Begum, her uncle and an entourage of hundreds. She reached the port of Jeddah in January 1864 AD/ 1280 AH and stayed there for a week. Then she instructed her agent, Abd al-Rahim to hire a camel caravan for the journey to Mecca. Sikandar Begum described performing her religious duty in Mecca:

“The hour of my arrival at Mecca was the ‘isha (first watch of the night), and the call to evening prayers was sounding from the different mosques. I entered within the holy precincts by the Gate of Peace, and, arriving at he House of Abraham, I stood and read the prescribed prayers. After that, I performed the ceremonies of the Arrival Tawaf, and of running at Safa and Marwa.”

Receiving considerable attention from others, Sikandar Begum felt uncomfortable about performing her duty. At one point in her accounts, she mentions how she was completely mobbed by faqirs during her tawaf. This problem was only resolved after her request to the Sharif of Mecca to provide four bodyguards to accompany her during tawaf was approved. Besides, as a precaution, she decided to wear the veil to avoid being recognized.

DULI YANG TERAMAT MULIA SIKANDAR,
BEGUM DARI BHOPAL
INDIA
IBADAH HAJI 1864 M / 1280 H

Bhopal, sebuah kerajaan Islam yang wujud sebelum kemerdekaan India. Ia diperintah oleh empat orang pemerintah wanita di antara tahun 1819 M/ 1234 H dan 1926 M/ 1344 H. Pengalaman perjalanan Nawab Sikandar Begum menunaikan haji ke Makkah pada tahun 1864 M/ 1280 H di akui sebagai catatan haji yang pertama direkodkan oleh pemangku raja. Sikandar Begum memulakan pelayaran ke Makkah pada akhir 1863 M/ 1279 H bersama-sama dengan ibunya Qudsia Begum, bapa saudara dan ratusan pengiringnya. Begum tiba di pelabuhan Jeddah pada bulan Januari 1864 M/ 1280 H dan menetap di sana selama satu minggu. Kemudian baginda mengarahkan orang suruhannya, Abd al-Rahim untuk mengupah karavan unta untuk perjalanan ke Makkah. Sikandar Begum memperincikan ibadah haji yang dilakukan di sana:

“sewaktu beta tiba di kota Makkah, kedengaran suara azan berkumandang dari beberapa buah masjid yang menandakan masuknya waktu Isyak. Beta masuk ke kawasan haram melalui pintu as-Salam, dan setelah sampai di Makam Ibrahim, beta berdiri dan mengerjakan solat seperti yang telah ditetapkan. Selepas itu, beta mengerjakan tawaf selamat datang, dan mengerjakan saie di Safa dan Marwa.”

Sikandar Begum merasa tidak selesa menunaikan ibadah haji kerana baginda menerima perhatian yang keterlaluan daripada orang ramai. Dalam salah satu daripada catatannya baginda menceritakan bagaimana dirinya telah di kerumuni oleh golongan fakir miskin ketika melakukan tawaf. Masalah ini hanya dapat di selesaikan setelah pemohonan beliau kepada Sharif Makkah bagi mendapatkan empat orang pengawal peribadi untuk mengawal baginda ketika tawaf diluluskan. Selain daripada itu, sebagai langkah berjaga-jaga, Begum juga memutuskan untuk memakai purdah bagi menggelakkan dirinya daripada di kenali.

SOURCE: Teks ini adalah hak milik Islamic Arts Museum Malaysia (IAMM). Teks adalah panel pameran 'En Route to Mecca: Pilgrims' Voices throughout the Centuries' IAMM. Writer and researcher: Mr. Zulkifli Ishak/ English editor: Mr. Lucien de Guise/ Malay editor: Mrs. Ros Mahwati Ahmad Zakaria.

WESTERN-CHRISTIANS IMAGES ON ISLAM: 'YESTERDAY' AND TODAY.

“Anti-Islamic stereotypes in Europe now again becoming virulent under a new constellation of world politics are the reflection of this early antagonistic history of Islamic-Christian interaction in the course of the expansion of Islamic rule in Europe since the 8th century and of the resulting Christian reconquista and crusades”

- Professor Hans Koechler -

It is not uncommon and not something bizarre for us in acknowledging that the clash of civilization between the Muslims and Western World that we are facing today already taken its roots before the modern era. The legacy for this bitter relation between these two major characters in the world affairs today as matter of fact could be traced since the early period of the Middle Ages. As been portrayed by Professor Hans Koechler, “the early clash of civilization since the middle Ages has created a legacy of confrontation, distrust and misunderstanding up to this day’ (IKIM Journal, vol. 7, no.2, pp. 99-100). In spite of various means and diplomatic ways has been adopted to fix, or at least to bridge the relationship between these two, this lengthy and arduous efforts seems as something as an unending inquiries.

This brief article has a purpose to bring out some sort of historical explanation on how the early contact between the Muslims and the Western civilization has taken it shape. Perhaps, by viewing this issue historically, it will provide us at least a cornerstone for any of our subsequent undertakings to find any appropriate solutions.

John Victor Tolan in his introduction of Medieval Christian Perception of Islam has stated, “The first generations of Christians to face Muslim invasions see Muslims as a formidable political and military force, but know and care little about their religious beliefs. It is only in the following generations, as the Christian majority assimilate to Arabic culture and convert in large numbers to Islam, that Islam becomes the religious threat; then and only then do Christians feel a need to confront the religious challenge of Islam”.

This ‘religious challenge of Islam’ as been mentioned by John Victor Tolan, leads to the polemic which has been presented in various forms and means; depends on the individual specialization and preoccupation. Series of ‘masterpieces’ of the early Christian theologians that enthusiastically played a role in championing the superiority of Christianity over Islam perhaps the perfect example to show their early perception on Islam. Richard Fletcher in his controversial work entitles The Cross and the Cresent: The dramatic story of the earliest encounters between Christians and Muslims uncovers some of the contents of Ystoria de Mahomet that compiled during eight or early ninth century in Southern Spain. In that writing, Prophet Muhammad was nicknamed as “son of darkness”, came with a new false teaching, claimed to have a divine inspiration that brought by the vulture professed as the angel of Gabriel. Also as example in the writing of famous Christian figure in ninth century, Alvarez of Recoba, who identified Prophet Muhammad as the beast from Apocalypse that brought the destruction towards Christian sanctuaries.

The contacts that happened later between the West and the Eastern world generally had generated the prosperity to the West; frankly speaking, it promoted and upgraded the quality of the socio economics life of the Western World. Despite all of these changes, it offered almost nothing for the Western Christian world in perceiving the Muslim World with positive kind of spirit or more to the ‘friendly’ attitude. As addressed by Svetlana Luchitkaja, ‘…the increase in direct contact with Islams seems to have done little to modify either the traditional stereotypes or newer exotica’.(Journal of Medieval History, vol. 26, no. 2, 115-126). The question of why, in spite of this kind of contacts of Christian with Muslims World since the Middle Ages didn’t exactly brought to the more clear understanding about Islam actually has been mingled in the mind of historians until this moment. Circle of academia also facing a great dispute whether the outcome of the contact between the West and Muslims just merely lead to more distorted images about the latter.

Luchitskaja further understands this situation by approaching this issue by analyzing the traits and attitudes of human beings in history. Starting her view by expressing provocative question, “What was more tenacious, ecclesiastical stereotypes and prejudices or real contacts and experiences of life, increased the knowledge of Islam?”. In her opinion, human beings have tendency towards the nature for stereotypes and prejudices, together with the combination of spiritual values (i.e. Christian doctrines), both factors then prevailed the role of knowledge and experience. Above all, this reason compelled the person to perceive others with negative perception, same as what had been exemplified by some of the medieval Christian chronicler in their literary expression that overflowed with full of hatredness against Islam and Prophet Muhammad S.A.W.

After all, it is us who live in this world today. And this world that we live in really needs a real panacea; to fix up this Western-Christians-Muslims dilemma. In part of Muslims’ history, some early generations had portrayed how the possibility for harmonious relationship among Muslims and Non-Muslims could be established, as what has done by Prophet Muhammad S.A.W in establishing the Republic of Madinah. Same goes to Saydina ‘Umar al-Khattab and Salah al-din al-Ayyubi in prospering the third Holy place of Muslims without alienated the peoples other than Muslims. On the other hand, Western world really need to understand and respecting others includes Muslims. Although history that written about the brutality and barbarity during the massacre in Jerusalem 1099 A.D. hurt Muslims as a whole, Salah al-Din al-Ayyubi never revenge and react the same way after he re captured Jerusalem in 1187 A.D., and the latter choosing and calling for peace (salm/silm). A calling for peace is a universal demand that really need to understand not only by the West, but by Muslims too. Peace cannot be achieved with inhumane and irrational actions as well as by impulsive reactions; moreover as proven in history of humankind, peace too is never result of war and confrontation.

SOURCE: Zulkifli Ishak 2007.

IV. EN ROUTE TO MAKKAH: PILGRIMS' VOICES THROUGHOUT THE CENTURIES (LUDOVICO DI VARTHEMA)

LUDOVICO DI VARTHEMA
BOLOGNA, ITALY
HAJJ 1503 AD / 908 AH

Ludovico di Varthema (c. 1470-1517 AD/ 874- 922 AH) was from Bologna and is believed to have travelled extensively in the first half of the 16th century. His seven-year journey to the Middle East, India, Burma, Malaya, Siam and Indonesia between the years 1502 AD/ 907 AH and 1508 AD/ 913 AH was recorded in his famous work, entitled the Itinerario (The Itinerary). His accounts of Mecca and the Muslim Hajj pilgrimage are among the earliest European records of this subject. With his status as a Muslim still in question, he cunningly managed to enroll himself with the Mamluk vanguard of the caravan that headed for the Holy City in 1503 AD/ 908 AH. On the way to Mecca from Damascus, he recorded the obstacles that were encountered by Muslims pilgrims. Varthema entered Mecca as part of a mercenary army with the purpose of ensuring the safety of Muslim pilgrims. They set out from a place he called ‘Mezeribe’, probably Jubb al-Mazarib in Syria today. His departure in the Itinerario as stated:

“On 11th of April (1503), the said caravan departed from Mezeribe; there were 35,000 camels, about 40,000 persons, and we were sixty Memelukes in guard of the said caravan. One third of Memelukes went in advance of the caravan with the standard, another third in the centre, and the other third marched in the rear”.

One of the major obstacles for the Muslim pilgrims was a constant fear for the attack of robbers. In Varthema’s accounts, he mentioned how their company was able to overcome the nomadic pirates because of disputes relating to water resources.

LUDOVICO DI VARTHEMA
BOLOGNA, ITALI
MENUJU KE MAKKAH 1503 M / 908 H

Ludovico di Varthema (1470- 157 M/ 874- 922 H) yang berasal dari Bologna, Itali dipercayai telah mengembara ke serata dunia pada sekitar abad ke-16 M / abad ke-10 H. Kembaranya selama tujuh tahun ke Timur Tengah, India, Burma, Malaya, Siam dan Indonesia di antara tahun 1502 M/ 907 H dan 1508 M/ 913 H telah dicatatkan di dalam bukunya yang terkenal bertajuk Itinerario. Catatannya berkaitan Makkah dan ibadah haji orang Islam merupakan antara yang terawal dilakukan di kalangan bangsa Eropah. Walaupun status dirinya sebagai seorang Muslim masih menjadi persoalan, kelicikannya membolehkan beliau berjaya menyertai angkatan tentera Mamluk yang bertanggungjawab mengiringi karavan haji ke Tanah Suci Makkah pada tahun 1503 M/ 908 H. Semasa dalam perjalanan ke Makkah dari Damsyik, beliau telah merekodkan halangan-halangan yang terpaksa ditempuhi oleh jemaah haji. Varthema memasuki Makkah sebagai salah seorang daripada askar upahan yang ditugaskan untuk memastikan keselamatan jemaah haji. Karavan di bawah jagaannya bertolak dari tempat yang dipanggilnya ‘Mezeribe’, berkemungkinan Jubb al-Mazarib yang terletak di Syria pada hari ini. Keberangkatannya telah dinyatakan di dalam catatannya Itinerario:

“Pada 11 April (1503), karavan ini telah bertolak daripada Mezeribe; di sini terdapat 35, 000 ekor unta, dengan lebih kurang 40, 000 jemaah, dan kami, askar Mamluk seramai enam puluh orang bertugas mengawalnya. Satu pertiga daripada jumlah askar Mamluk ini mendahului karavan di hadapan seperti yang biasa dilakukan, satu pertiga lagi berada di bahagian tengah, dan satu pertiga yang lainnya pula berbaris di belakang sekali.”

Salah satu daripada halangan besar yang ditakuti oleh jemaah haji ialah ancaman penyamun yang berterusan. Di dalam catatan Varthema, beliau menceritakan bagaimana karavannya berjaya mengatasi penyamun nomad ini selepas berlakunya pertelingkahan mengenai sumber air.

SOURCE: Teks ini adalah hak milik Islamic Arts Museum Malaysia (IAMM). Teks adalah panel pameran 'En Route to Mecca: Pilgrims' Voices throughout the Centuries' IAMM. Writer and researcher: Mr. Zulkifli Ishak/ English editor: Mr. Lucien de Guise/ Malay editor: Mrs. Ros Mahwati Ahmad Zakaria.

III. EN ROUTE TO MAKKAH: PILGRIMS' VOICES THROUGHOUT THE CENTURIES (LADY EVELYN ZAINAB MURRAY COBBOLD)

LADY EVELYN ZAINAB MURRAY COBBOLD
GREAT BRITAIN
HAJJ 1933 AD / 1352 AH

Lady Evelyn Zainab Murray Cobbold (1867-1963 AD/ 1283- 1382 AH) was the first European women to record her personal experience of Hajj. The eldest daughter of the seventh Earl of Dunmore, she is believed to have embraced Islam during her childhood. Her pilgrimage to Mecca was permitted by King Abdul Aziz Ibn Saud, and she was hosted by Harry St John Bridger Philby, an intrepid British explorer and author, a Muslim convert who had reached Mecca in 1931 AD/ 1349 AH. At the age of 66, Lady Evelyn started her journey by ship from Cairo to the Port of Jeddah, alone.
Once Lady Evelyn had reached Jeddah, she was looked after by Harry St John Philby. As permission to enter the holy city had not yet been received, she occupied her leisure time by travelling in the region and recording her experiences. Muslims pilgrims on their way to Mecca were among the sights that captivated her. As stated in an account dated 28 February 1933/ 3 Dhu’l Qa’dah 1351, while in Jeddah:

“We pass many pilgrims on their way to the Holy Cities, some in motors, some swaying on the camels, and the very poor on foot. The men are clothed in their ihram (or two towels) and bareheaded. The women going to Medina are in black or colours, while those on the road to Mecca are in their pilgrim white. Some of the poor pilgrims from far countries take years on their way.”

On 12 March 1933/ 15 Dhu’l Qa’dah 1351, King Ibn Saud gave permission for Lady Evelyn to enter Mecca.

LADY EVELYN ZAINAB MURRAY COBBOLD
BRITAIN
IBADAH HAJI 1933 M / 1352 H

Lady Evelyn Zainab Murray Cobbold (1867- 1963 M/ 1283- 1382 H) ialah wanita Eropah pertama yang telah merekodkan pengalamannya ketika mengerjakan ibadah haji. Beliau merupakan anak perempuan sulung daripada Earl Dunmore, beliau dipercayai telah memeluk agama Islam semenjak kecil. Pemergiannya ke Makkah telah mendapat keizinan daripada Raja Abdul Aziz Ibnu Saud dan beliau juga menjadi tetamu khas kepada Harry St John Philby, seorang penjelajah Britain yang terkenal dengan keberaniannya. Philby, yang telah memeluk Islam, mengerjakan haji pada tahun 1931 M/ 1349 H. Sewaktu berumur 66 tahun, Lady Evelyn telah memulakan perjalanannya secara bersendirian ke Makkah dengan menaiki kapal laut yang bertolak dari Kaherah ke Pelabuhan Jeddah.

Apabila tiba di Jeddah, Lady Evelyn dijaga oleh Harry St John Philby, yang mempunyai hak istimewa sebagai penasihat British kepada Sultan Abdul Aziz Ibn Saud. Oleh kerana Lady Evelyn belum mendapat kebenaran memasuki kota suci Makkah, beliau telah mengisi masa lapangnya dengan berjalan-jalan di kawasan sekitar dan merekodkan pengalamannya. Antara yang menarik perhatian beliau ialah pergerakkan jemaah haji yang menuju ke Makkah. Ketika di Jeddah, pada tanggal 28 Februari 1933 M / 3 Dhu’l Qa’dah 1351 H, beliau menulis:

“Kami melepasi jemaah yang dalam perjalanan mereka ke Kota Suci, ada yang menaiki kenderaan berenjin, ada yang terhoyong-hayang di atas unta, dan mereka yang miskin hanya berjalan kaki. Golongan lelaki telah siap memakai ihram tanpa penutup kepala. Golongan wanita yang menuju ke Madinah berpakaian hitam, manakala yang menuju ke Makkah pula berpakaian haji berwarna putih. Sesetengah jemaah haji yang miskin dari negara yang jauh mengambil masa yang lama untuk sampai.”

Pada 12 Mac 1933 M / 15 Dhu’l Qa’dah 1351 H, Raja Ibnu Saud telah membenarkan Lady Evelyn untuk memasuki Makkah.

SOURCE: Teks ini adalah hak milik Islamic Arts Museum Malaysia (IAMM). Teks adalah panel pameran 'En Route to Mecca: Pilgrims' Voices throughout the Centuries' IAMM. Writer and researcher: Mr. Zulkifli Ishak/ English editor: Mr. Lucien de Guise/ Malay editor: Mrs. Ros Mahwati Ahmad Zakaria. Fotograf2 yang tertera ini mendapat kebenaran daripada Angus Sladen, cucu cicit Lady Evelyn Zainab Murray Cobbold untuk di pamerkan di pameran IAMM.

HISTORICAL CONSCIOUSNESS IN EARLY MUSLIM HISTORIOGRAPHY

Historiography concerns with the writing of history by any particular groups or in any particular period. This field of discipline generally involve in dealing with the activities in describing the origin, growth or decline of the forms of literary expression, which were used for the preservation of historical material. In case of Muslim historiography, it concerns with the study of rise and development of Islamic history along with the development of historical consciousness and historiography itself. In studying or analyzing historiography, ‘historical consciousness’ is the fundamental aspect that needs to be put into consideration. It is because idea lies behind preserving historical material as matter of fact is coming from the sense of history-conscious. Thus this brief article will try to examine and to trace the historical consciousness that exist, and grow to be the foundation for the rise of early Muslim historiography. Again, when we speak about early Muslim historiography, it is mainly focus on the land of central Arabia, where Islam was sent and start to be propagated in around 7th century Makkah.

Pre-Islamic Arabia was rich and well known for their tradition; ‘ayyam al-‘arab (the assemble of the stories during the battle days of the tribes in Arabia), as well as its genealogical lore (the tradition of preserving the family tree or nasab of family or tribes through memorization skill). Both traditions basically have a concept of recording and preserving substances for certain purposes. Nevertheless, life during the pre-Islamic Arabian didn’t provide them with the systematic methodology in preservation of materials. The common practice that applied during that time was through the method of memorization since almost none of them know the art of writing. The feast such as ‘Ukaz fair was dominated by the poets and orator which have skills of memorization. By this talent, they presented their tribal voices and became the spokesman in championing their own tribes. But the question is could we say that this kind of tradition for example by orator or poets in ‘Ukaz feast was heavily backboned by the sense of history conscious? Franz Rosenthal in his book A History of Muslim Historiography did not consider that there is the existence of historical consciousness in ‘ayyam al-‘arab. According to him, it was served merely as the entertainment and the emotional enjoyment for the listeners. Besides, there was no sign for the development of history-making since it was lack the sense of continuity, the absence of historical elements of causes and effects and it was timeless in nature which given the result that it couldn’t be develop to the historical literature. While in matter of genealogy, Franz Rosenthal further observed that only with the advent of Islam, genealogy could activate its historical potential since Islam didn’t abolished this existing tradition.

With the coming of Islam, the traditional practices of Arab peoples were not totally prohibited. For instance in genealogical practice, that is the practice that developed due to the spirit of loyalty to one’s tribe and a way in promoting the tribal identification. Rather than abolishing this long established tradition, Islam put a new dimension in determining the identity of the peoples. With the genealogical practice preserved, but the sole identification and loyalty was replaced, and now it was sit under the banner of ummah. Saydina ‘Umar al-Khattab, the second pious caliph of Muslims, brilliantly utilized the old practice of genealogy. He established a systematic records and data collection. Military records for example were important in recording the information of peoples who participate in warfare. This kind of records also was made in order to collect the information of the city dwellers. Such exercised were executed under the genealogical system that already exists during the pre-Islamic Arabia. A.A. Duri in his statement regarding the practice of ‘Umar in two Islamic centers, namely Kufa and Basra which originally as the military bases for the eastern military campaign, “Due to the interest in tribal affairs and activities of ‘ayyam al-‘arab, with the tribal perspectives in studying history, the continuation of the past tradition happened but with the new form of ‘ayyam, that is the battles and conquest of Islam and not the tribes”. (The Rise of Historical Writing Among the Arabs)

History of the ancient period of Arabian land had witnessed the emergence of various civilizations which were known to the world. In the Northern part of Arabia, the civilization of the ‘land between the two rivers’ mentioning the Mesopotamian civilization and the Old Syrian settlement were prosperously established. On the southern part of Arabia, particularly on the area of Yemen today, there used to exist the great kingdom of Himyar which played a major role in trading activities in the land of Arabia. Archeological evidences like the inscriptions of the kings and descriptions on the tomb deliberately suggest us that their magnificent achievement could be build up due to the sense of historical consciousness. Then, in the case of Central Arabia, although it doesn’t belong to any great civilization (due to the geographical factors such as the absence of the fertile land and rivers as the source of living), this place still made contact with the northern and southern parts of Arabia through trading activities and central Arabia never live in isolation. The society of pre-Islamic Arabia as matter of fact was not only populated by the tent-dwellers. Some of them are merchant tribes, and they actively involved in trading activities and constantly made contact and relation with other peoples outside Arabia. Now it comes to question, does the central Arabian which has exposure to the other civilization is being influenced by the awareness and consciousness towards history as portrayed by their neighbors? And if answer is yes, we actually could assume that ‘ayyam al-‘arab possibly was based on the sense of history conscious? This suggestion could be open to others especially students of history to seek it further treatment.

In the nutshell, what could I conclude especially on the issue of early Muslim historiography is that the historical consciousness is exist and become the foundation of Muslim historiography. This historical-consciousness was inherited from the traditions of the pre-Islamic Arabia and the history-making during that time was formed with its own exclusive native spirits. The advents of Islam later throw the light and give the new dimension for the history-making without abolishing the long established tradition of central Arabia. The activities of history-making after the coming of Islam then were confined to sirah al-maghazi (history of battle which participated by Prophet Muhammad SAW), futuhat (history of Muslims’ campaigns in propagating Islam) and field of genealogy, with the leading early Muslim historian during that time such as al-Tabari.

SOURCE: Zulkifli Ishak for 'REVISION, Feb 2007'

II. EN ROUTE TO MAKKAH: PILGRIMS' VOICES THROUGHOUT THE CENTURIES (MALCOLM X)

MALCOLM X
UNITED STATES OF AMERICA
HAJJ 1964 AD / 1383 AH

Malcolm X was among the most influential African-Americans in modern history. Originally named Malcolm Little, he was born in Omaha, Nebraska in 1925 AD/ 1343 AH. His early life was turbulent, he was arrested for robbery and sent to Massachusetts State Prison in 1945 AD/ 1364 AH. In prison, he became a member of the Nation of Islam, a movement that generated self-esteem and self-identification for black Americans. He was released from prison in 1952 AD/ 1371 AH. Due to conflicts about ideas and interests with Elijah Muhammad, the head of the organization, he announced his departure from the Nation of Islam in 1964 AD/ 1383 AH. In that same year he decided to perform his Hajj pilgrimage. His inability to speak Arabic, and holding a United States passport, held him up for 20 hours in a state of Ihram at Jeddah airport. The Saudi authorities enforced strict regulations to ensure non-Muslims could not enter Mecca. The Hajj Committee Court finally recognised Malcolm X as a Muslim from America. He later received an invitation to be a special guest of Prince Faysal.

“There were tens of thousands of pilgrims, from all over the world. They were of all colors, from blue-eyed blonds to black-skinned Africans. But we were all participating in the same ritual, displaying a spirit of unity and brotherhood that my experiences in America had led me to believe never could exist between the white and nonwhite.”

Malcolm X, now El-Hajj Malik El-Shabazz, was assassinated on 21 February 1965/ 19 Syawwal 1384 during a meeting of the Organization of Afro-American Unity.

MALCOLM X
AMERIKA SYARIKAT
IBADAH HAJI 1964 M / 1383 H

Malcolm X merupakan antara individu keturunan Afrika-Amerika yang paling berpengaruh di dalam sejarah moden. Namanya ialah Malcolm Little dan beliau telah dilahirkan di Omaha, Nebraska pada tahun 1925 M/ 1343 H. Sejak kecil lagi hidup beliau telah mula bergolak, beliau pernah di tahan kerana kes rompakan dan dimasukkan ke Penjara Negeri Massachusetts pada tahun 1945 M/ 1364 H. Ketika di dalam penjara, beliau telah menjadi ahli Nation of Islam, pergerakan yang membina semangat jatidiri masyarakat kulit hitam Amerika khususnya, dan masyarakat kulit hitam lain amnya. Beliau telah dibebaskan dari penjara pada tahun 1952 M/ 1371 H. Oleh kerana terdapat percanggahan pendapat dan kepentingan di antara dirinya dengan Elijah Muhammad, Malcolm X telah mengumumkan penarikkan dirinya daripada menjadi ahli Nation of Islam pada tahun 1964. Pada tahun yang sama, beliau juga telah mengambil keputusan untuk menunaikan ibadah haji. Disebabkan beliau tidak boleh berbahasa Arab, ditambah pula dengan pasport Amerika Syarikat yang dipegangnya, beliau telah terkandas selama 20 jam di dalam lapangan terbang Jeddah walaupun telah lengkap berpakaian ihram. Pihak berkuasa Arab Saudi telah menguatkuasakan peraturan yang cukup ketat bagi memastikan orang bukan Islam tidak terlepas masuk ke dalam Makkah. Akhirnya, Hajj Committee Court telah mengesahkan bahawa Malcolm X sebagai seorang Islam dari Amerika. Beliau kemudiannya telah menerima undangan khas daripada Putera Faysal.

“Terdapat berpuluh ribu jemaah haji yang datang dari seluruh pelusuk dunia. Mereka terdiri daripada yang memiliki pelbagai warna kulit, yang mempunyai anak mata berwarna biru dan berambut perang hinggalah kepada kaum kulit hitam Afrika. Biar pun begitu, kami semua melakukan amalan yang sama, penuh dengan semangat perpaduan dan persaudaraan yang jika mengikut pengalaman ku di Amerika aku tidak akan percaya bahawa hubungan sebegini boleh wujud di antara orang kulit putih dan bukan kulit putih.”

Malcolm X yang di kenali sebagai El-Hajj Malik El-Shabazz selepas menunaikan haji, telah dibunuh pada 21 Februari 1965/ 19 Syawwal 1384 sewaktu berlangsungnya mesyuarat Organization of Afro-American Unity.

SOURCE: Teks ini adalah hak milik Islamic Arts Museum Malaysia (IAMM). Teks adalah panel pameran 'En Route to Mecca: Pilgrims' Voices throughout the Centuries' IAMM. Writer and researcher: Mr. Zulkifli Ishak/ English editor: Mr. Lucien de Guise/ Malay editor: Mrs. Ros Mahwati Ahmad Zakaria.

I. EN ROUTE TO MAKKAH: PILGRIMS' VOICES THROUGHOUT THE CENTURIES (MALAY PILGRIMS TO MAKKAH)

MALAY PILGRIMS TO MECCA
MALAY ARCHIPELAGO
15TH - 20TH CENTURY AD / 9th – 15th CENTURY AH

Hajj pilgrimages have been recorded in Malay history since the 15th century AD/ 9th century AH. As Mecca has long been a centre of learning, it has attracted visitors with a thirst for knowledge. The holy city has been a magnet for ulama’ from every part of the Islamic world. Muhammad Yusuf Ahmad or Tok Kenali, a Muslim scholar from Kelantan, furthered his religious studies in Mecca at the age of 18 in the late 19th century. After six months sailing to Mecca, he decided to stay there to gather as much as knowledge as possible from notable Muslim scholars in that city in addition to performing his Hajj pilgrimage.
The more learned and literate Malays have tended to preserve their experiences in writing so that they might share their knowledge. Some manuscripts that have been discovered in the Malay Archipelago, written in Jawi script, touch on many aspects of Hajj, including personal accounts as well as the religious elements of the pilgrimage.
The Malay scholar Harun Aminurashid (pic) wrote of his travels to Mecca in 1960 AD/ 1379 AH in book entitled Chatetan ka-Tanah Suchi. In one part of his writing, he brings readers inside a pilgrim ship. The rigours become apparent in this translation:

“It is hard being a passenger inside compartments that are located in the middle of ship…peoples who wanted to perform Al-Hajj must be patient…there is no pleasure or freedom as you experience on land…it seems that you have to suffer for a whole month on your way Mecca and back; the only solution is patience.”

JEMAAH HAJI MELAYU KE MAKKAH
ABAD KE-15 HINGGA 20 M / ABAD KE-9 HINGGA 15 H
KEPULAUAN MELAYU

Ibadah haji telah direkodkan di dalam sejarah masyarakat Melayu semenjak abad ke-15 M / abad ke- 9 H. Dengan peranan Makkah sebagai sebuah pusat pengajian ilmu, kota ini telah menarik ramai pengunjung yang dahagakan ilmu pengetahuan. Kota suci ini mempunyai daya tarikannya yang tersendiri kepada para ulama’dari segenap pelusuk dunia Islam. Muhammad Yusuf Ahmad atau lebih di kenali dengan nama Tok Kenali yang merupakan seorang ilmuwan Islam dari Kelantan telah melanjutkan pengajian agama beliau di Makkah ketika berusia lapan belas tahun. Selepas mengharungi pelayaran selama enam bulan, beliau telah memutuskan untuk menetap di Makkah dengan tujuan menuntut sebanyak mungkin ilmu agama daripada para ilmuwan Islam yang termashyur di sana, di samping menunaikan ibadah hajinya.
Ramai di kalangan orang Melayu yang terpelajar berminat untuk mengabadikan pengalaman mereka di dalam bentuk tulisan agar dapat berkongsi ilmu yang mereka miliki. Beberapa manuskrip bertulisan jawi yang di temui di Kepulauan Melayu menyentuh pelbagai aspek berkaitan haji, antaranya termasuk catatan-catatan peribadi serta elemen-elemen haji yang bersifat keagamaan.

Harun Aminurashid (gambar), seorang cendiakawan Melayu telah menulis catatan pengembaraannya ke Makkah pada tahun 1960 M/ 1379 H di dalam bukunya yang bertajuk Chatetan ka-Tanah Suchi. Dalam salah satu bahagian tulisannya, beliau seakan-akan membawa pembaca belayar bersamanya di dalam kapal tersebut. Perit getir yang dilaluinya dikisahkan seperti berikut:

“Susah menjadi penumpang di dalam bahagian tengah kapal…orang yang ingin menunaikan haji mestilah sabar…..di sini tiada keseronokan atau kebebasan seperti kebiasaanya ketika di darat…kamu terpaksa menanggung kesusahan ini di sepanjang pelayaran pergi dan balik dari menunaikan haji; sabar ialah satu-satunya jalan penyelesaian terbaik.”

SOURCE: Teks ini adalah hak milik Islamic Arts Museum Malaysia (IAMM). Teks adalah panel pameran 'En Route to Mecca: Pilgrims' Voices throughout the Centuries' IAMM. Writer and researcher: Mr. Zulkifli Ishak/ English editor: Mr. Lucien de Guise/ Malay editor: Mrs. Ros Mahwati Ahmad Zakaria. Gambar adalah hak milik Arkib Negara Malaysia.

MEDIEVAL 'BOND': THE ROLE OF EUROPEAN ESPIONAGE IN THE FALL OF MALACCA SULTANATE 1511 AD by ZULKIFLI ISHAK

“When we had arrived at the city of Melacha, we were immediately presented to the Sultan, who is a Moor, as is also all his kingdom."

- Varthema 16th C.E.-

[Ludovico di Varthema, The travels of Ludovico di Varthema in Egypt, Syria, Arabia Deserta and Arabia Felix, in Persia, India and Ethopia, A.D. 1503-1508, translated by J.W. Jones & edited by G.P. Badger. In Fuat Sezgin (ed.), In The Islamic World in foreign travel accounts, vol II. Institute for the History of Arabic-Islamic Science at the Johann Wolfgang Goethe University Frankfurt am Main, 1994. (Reprint of the Edition London, 1853), page 223.]

Kota Melaka di tawan Portugis pada tahun 1511 AD. Tentera Melaka, tentera upahan Jawa, dan seluruh rakyat Melaka tidak dapat menandingi kekuatan dan strategi peperangan kapten kapal Flor De la Mar, Alfonso de Albuerqueque. Melaka ranap sama sekali. Tidak lama kemudian, di atas runtuhan Kota Melaka ini, Kota A Famosa hak milik dan kebanggaan Portugis mula didirikan. Kota ini menjadi satu lagi simbol penguasaan Portugis di perairan India selepas kuasa maritim Eropah ini berjaya mengukuhkan kedudukannya di benua India.

Melaka bukanlah satu kuasa yang lemah pada awal abad ke 16. Kekalahan kepada Portugis bukanlah semata-mata kerana Melaka tidak langsung mempunyai keupayaan ketenteraan untuk sekurang-kurangnya mengimbangi serangan-serangan armada Portugis. Akan tetapi, Melaka sebenarnya sudah ‘runtuh’ dari dalam. Peranan pengkhianat dan perisik yang terdiri daripada rakyat Melaka yang hanya mementingkan tembolok sendiri memberi kelebihan yang besar kepada Portugis. Antara watak antagonis yang berperanan sebagai pengkhianat dan yang paling terkenal ialah Nina Chattu (Faisal Tehrani menulis sebuah novel yang pada aku, dapat menggambarkan kegiatan Nina Chattu dan juga betapa gentingnya keadaan ketika Portugis menghancurkan Kota dan rakyat Melaka, title novel ini 1515). Selain daripada sumber-sumber maklumat dari dalam, pihak Portugis juga bergantung harap kepada rakan-rakan sebangsanya dan sahabat-sahabat Kristiannya yang terdiri daripada perisik rasmi, pengembara mahupun pendakwah Kristian.

Saya mula mengetahui bahawa sistem perisikkan Portugis, atau secara umumnya kuasa-kuasa Eropah di zaman pertengahan adalah begitu sofistikated. Penemuan aku adalah secara tak sengaja ketika memeras otak menyiapkan M.A. thesis beberapa tahun yang lepas (dan thesis saya tiada kaitan langsung dengan sistem perisikkan Eropah). Semuanya bermula bila saya mula mewujudkan profile seorang penjelajah Itali dan aktiviti-aktivitinya di kepulauan Melayu pada awal abad ke 16. Nama lelaki ini Ludovico di Varthema, dan dia berasal dari Bologna.

Varthema berkeliaran di kepulauan Melayu sekitar tahun 1504 hingga 1505 AD (Thomas Suarez, Early Mapping of Southeast Asia, Singapore; Periplus Edition 1999). Di dalam catatan peribadinya, Varthema menjelajah bersama-sama dengan seorang pedagang berbangsa Parsi ke beberapa tanah besar dan kepulauan-kepulauan di dunia Melayu seperti semenanjung Tanah Melayu, Jawa, Borneo, Kepulauan Maluku dan lain-lain lagi. Melaka merupakan wilayah pertama dan terakhir (2 kali lawatan) yang disinggahi Varthema sebelum berangkat semula ke India. Di antara tahun 1506 hingga 1507 AD, aktiviti-aktiviti Varthema adalah di India, tempat di mana Portugis mendirikan kubu-kubu dan pusat-pusat perdagangan maritimnya di perairan India.

Varthema pada ketika ini sudah pun menjadi seorang ‘wanted man’. Dia di buru oleh orang Islam kerana Varthema sebelum ini berjaya meloloskan diri daripada sebuah penjara di Aden, Yemen. Varthema di tahan kerana menyamar sebagai seorang Muslim dan di tuduh sebagai perisik bagi pihak Kristian, tambah lagi dia dah ‘kantol’ di tangan Sultan Yemen kerana tak tahu mengucap kalimah shahadah dan dia tidak berkhatan (cara efektif zaman pertengahan untuk mengetahui samada seseorang lelaki itu Islam atau pun tidak). Sewaktu di India inilah sesetengah orang Islam (para pedagang) dapat mengecam wajahnya, dan Varthema dilindungi sepenuhnya oleh pihak Portugis. Di sini juga, dia berkhidmat dengan pihak Portugis sehingga tahun 1507 AD, dan pada tahun yang sama Varthema berangkat pulang ke Eropah (ke Lisbon, berjumpa dengan Pope Julius II dan kembali ke Itali).

Varthema dilindungi Portugis di sebuah kubu yang terletak di Cannanore, India. Di sini, dia di tahan selama tiga hari dan di soal siasat oleh Don Lorenzo, anak lelaki Wizurai Portugis di India. Selepas itu, Varthema di hantar ke sebuah kubu yang lain di Cochin, di mana kali ini Varthema di soal siasat sendiri oleh Don Francisco Almeida, Wizurai Portugis. Varthema juga mempunyai hubungan yang rapat dengan seorang ketua armada Portugis, Tristao da Cunha, orang yang sama yang menyarankan agar Varthema di kurniakan pingat kesatria/knighthood selepas Varthema berkhidmat bersama-sama dengan tentera Portugis menyerang kubu Pannani, selatan Calicut pada 24 November 1507.

Pertemuan di antara Varthema dan pihak Portugis merupakan rahmat yang besar buat Portugis. Varthema adalah merupakan seorang yang luar biasa. William Boulting menggambarkan karektor Varthema seperti berikut, , “a man with so much knowledge of Mohammedan and Hindu customs and method, speaking Arabic, and with some smattering of the native tongue; a man, withal, with such experience of the ways of the world, so diplomatic, and so masterful, would be invaluable” (William Boulting, Four Pilgrims, London: Kegan Paul, Trench, Trubner, no date). Dengan pengalamannya menjelajah ke segenap ceruk dunia, dan pengalamannya menjelajah dunia Melayu sudah cukup bagi Portugis untuk mempunyai asset dan kelebihan dalam usaha mereka melebarkan jajahannya ke timur. Tambahan lagi, Melaka dan Sumatra merupakan dua target/destinasi tujuan Portugis untuk ‘di jarah’ seperti yang telah di arahkan oleh Raja Portugal D. Manuel di dalam suratnya yang bertarikh 1506 AD kepada Don Francisco Almeida, Wizurai Portugis di India.

Surat Raja Portugal D. Manuel ini mengarahkan agar pembinaan segera kubu Portugis di Melaka dilakukan dan juga arahan untuk meletakkan batu asas di Sumatra sebagai tanda bukti bahawa Sumatra mula menjadi milikkan empayar Portugal. Surat/dokumen bertarikh 1506 AD ini adalah seperti berikut:

25. Item. Ymdo-vos, emquanto la andardes, vos trabalhay de saber das cousas daquelas partes, a saber; das riquezas e proveytos della; e da grandeza da terra; e de quem he senhoreada; e de que senhoryo sam; e a parte que hy tem os mouros; e que jeemtes outras ha na terra, e com quem tem trauto; e do que vale mais, de mercadaryas das de ca; e quaes sam as milhores mercadaryas de la, e cos preços dellas; e se tem alguumas guerras, e com quem; e que jeente sam de guerra, e como armadas; e se tem hy casas mercadores doutras partes, e de que nações; e se ha hy muytas naos da terra, e em quamta soma e tamahas; e se tem abastança de mantimentos, e de que sortes; e se sam providos de for a, se os ha na mesma na terra; se tem rey antre sy, ou o modo e que vyvem; se sam governados em justice, e que modo tem no provymento della; e toda outra enformaçam que vos pareça que deves aver das cousas da terra, pera de todo nos screverdes, prazemdo a Deus.

25. Item. Once you have departed on your journey, you should work to be acquainted with matters of those regions, namely of their wealth, products, their area and whom they belong to, who their overlord is and whether any place belongs to the Muslims; whether they are races from another country and with whom do they trade; and whether the goods are dearer then here; which are the best goods in such places and their prices; and which people are at war and the weapons they use, and whether traders from other countries live there and from which countries; whether they are many ships in the place and their sizes; whether they are sufficient supplies and what sort; whether they are supplied from abroad and locally, whether they have kings amongst themselves and the way of life; whether there is an administration of justice and their kind of laws; give all the information that you think is good to know about such places and regarding all these you should write to us, God willing.

(Portuguese Documents On Malacca, vol.I, collected, translated and annotated by M. J. Pintado, Kuala Lumpur: National Archives of Malaysia, 1993).

Juga di dalam surat yang sama, arahan diberikan untuk melihat potensi-potensi yang terdapat di kepulauan Sumatra. Surat menyatakan:

27. Item. Nesta viajem e yda que asy aves de fazer, prazemdo a Deus, nos pareceo bem vos dar lenbrança da ilha de Çamatra, que hy he perto de Mallaca, segundo nos dizem, que diz que he muy rica ylha; e asy da ilha do cravo, e doutras ylhas pricipaes, aquy comarquãs, que somos enformado que sam muy ricas e de que se pode tirar muito proveyto.

27. Item. In this journey which you are undergoing, God willing, we have to remind you of the island of Sumatra which is quite close to Malacca, and we are told, a very rich island; and also the island of cloves and the other main islands, and those districts which we are told are very rich and where one can get a large profits.

Adakah surat/dokumen ini wujud? Ya, surat/dokumen ini wujud dan menjadi artifak/manuskrip sejarah yang bernilai. Adakah surat ini sampai kepada Wizurai Portugis di India? Ya, surat ini selamat sampai di tangan Wizurai Portugis di India kerana orang yang di pertanggungjawabkan oleh Raja Portugal untuk menghantar surat ini, Tristao da Cunha juga selamat sampai, malah dia berkhidmat di beberapa peperangan menentang orang Islam di India. Adakah wujud kaitan dua figura Portugis ini dengan Varthema? Don Francisco Almeida dan Tristao da Cunha bersemuka ‘face to face’ dengan Varthema. Adakah topik perbincangan Wizurai Portugis /anaknya dengan Varthema ketika soal siasat hanya berkisar tentang manusia pigmi, buahan/ binatang eksotik etc. di kepulauan Melayu? Dengan tanggungjawab laksana seorang jeneral juga dengan arahan daripada Raja Portugal, aku rasa soal siasat ini lebih daripada trivial matters. Adakah Varthema seorang perisik Portugis? Walaupun secara terangan tidak dinyatakan, walau fakta-fakta ini mungkin boleh di sangkal, ia sekurang-kurangnya dapat menggambarkan sistem perisikkan yang diguna pakai oleh orang Eropah zaman pertengahan. Apa-apa pun, samada banyak atau sedikit informasi yang di perolehi Portugis daripada Varthema, saya percaya ianya menyumbang juga kepada kejatuhan Melaka lima tahun selepas Varthema mendarat dan bersekongkol dengan Portugis di India.

ISLAMIC HISTORY AND THE HISTORY OF THE OTHER.

“Historians used to study history of the Abbasid Dynasty in Baghdad 132-656 A.H. (750-1258 C.E.) under different titles like the Abbasid Caliphate, the Abbasid Empire or Medieval history of Islam. Such titles are not used in these notes and are not recommended for the study of this period.
The Caliph or Amir al-Muminin is the leader of Muslims who is responsible for the Islamic laws (shari’ah) and its implementations in the life of Muslims, as Ibnu Khaldun put in a short form when he defined al-Khalafa (caliphate) as : “Hirasatul din wa siyasatu al-Dunya bihi”.

Islamic Caliphate is the system of Islamic government and state that was founded after the death of the Prophet (PBUH) in the first century A.H. (7th C.E.) and continued from that time until the year 1343 A.H./ 1924 C.E. when Kamal Attaturk ended the caliphate.
Throughout the history of the caliphate, there were famous leaders and families who held the caliphate post such as the first four Caliphs, Umayyad Dynasty, Abbasid Dynasty, Fatimid Dynasty, and the ‘Usmanli Dynasty.
I think that it is better and more accurate to look at the history of the Caliphate as a continuation of events from the time of Abu Bakr, the first Caliph, until 1924 the end of the Caliphate in Turkey. Under the history of the Caliphate, we have the Righteous Orthodox Caliphs, Umayyad Dynasty, Abbasid Dynasty, Fatimid Dynasty and the Usmanli Dynasty. We have one Caliphate and different dynasties. This is just like the dynasties of Ancient Egyptian history. When we say Umayyad Caliphate, Abbasid Caliphate, Fatimid Caliphate etc, we present Islamic history in separated parts not as a continuation of one unit.
It is also not accurate to call this period the ‘Abbasid Empire’ because Caliphate and Empire are different systems. They are different in their concepts and the practicing of authority, the appointment of the head of the state and the question of the constitution.
When we refer to the Emperor, we are referring to a completely different system compared to the system of the caliph. Of course it is not correct to say the Emperor Harun al-Rashid. He was not an Emperor, he was a Caliph. Similarly, it is not correct to call the Roman Empire Caesar ‘the Caliph’. He was an Emperor!
On the other hand it is also not correct to study history of Abbasid as ‘Medieval History of Islam’. The term medieval is one of three parts used by Europeans since the seventeenth century to interpret and study the history of Europe. Medieval history is the dark period of Europe that lies between the ancient Greco-Roman civilization and the rebirth of that civilization in modern Europe 5th to 15th centuries (2nd to 9th centuries A.H.).
When we say medieval Islam we will look for ancient Islam and modern Islam. These periods: Ancient before the 5th century (2nd century before Hijra/BH), the Medieval between the 5th and the 15th (2nd to 9th centuries A.H.) and the Modern from the 15th century C.E.(9th A.H.) are divisions in the European history based on certain regional events in Europe. It is not necessary to use these periods in studying history of the world or any other regional history. We are supposed to study and divide history of Islam according to our own periodization….
Furthermore, this study presents a suggestion of using the “Hijra” to date the events before the time of the prophet SAW (PBUH). This is just like the usage of B.C. for the events that occurred before the birth of Jesus Christ.”

SOURCE: Introduction to a book entitle "History of the Ummah: Abbasid Dynasty (132-656 AH)" by Professor Ahmed Elyas Hussein, former history lecturer of International Islamic University Malaysia. + for me, he is like a 'Godfather' of Islamic History :).

INSIDE ARABESQUE - INTELLIGENCE, BEAUTY, AND TAWHEED.

Di antara prinsip asas kesenian Islam ialah tidak menonjolkan motif2 yang jelas berkaitan dengan makhluk / hidupan seperti manusia dan haiwan. Imej-imej jelas sama ada manusia atau pun sculpture2 yang menggambarkan secara solid sosok haiwan, atau ‘malaikat bersayap’ seperti yang terdapat di chapel2, church2 dan sebagainya adalah di larang di dalam Islam. Antara sebabnya ialah ianya di khuatiri akan di puja2 dan di agung2kan kesan daripada penghayatan dan penghargaan terhadap nilai2 estetika yang terdapat pada objek2 tersebut, seterusnya membuatkan umat Islam lalai dan terlupa mengagungkan Tuhan yang Satu. Jadi bagaimanakah umat Islam mahu menghayati kesenian? Bagaimana mereka ingin mentakrifkan maksud kecantikkan dan keindahan sekiranya mereka tidak dapat menikmati keindahan2 seperti lukisan2 Michaelangelo, atau ukiran2 sculpture manusia yang dapat menenggelamkan diri mereka di dalam dunia khayalan?. Ibarat kata pepatah, “Necessity is the mother of invention”, maka lahirlah jawapan bagi persoalan ini, iaitu melalui kelahiran arabesque.

Arabesque ialah bentuk corak yang rumit. Bentuk corak yang rumit ini pula terdiri daripada bentuk2 geometri, kaligrafi dan bentuk motif-motif tumbuhan gayaan (floral stylised). Contoh2 terdekat dan asas arabesque ini dapat di lihat di bahagian dalam kubah masjid, sisi-sisi hiasan masjid, dan pelbagai lagi hasil seni Islam yang lain. Arabesque di reka dan di ilhamkan oleh pengkarya2 seni Islam yang genius and mempunyai kreativiti ‘tahap dewa’. Terselindung di dalam Arabesque ialah elemen2 kebijaksanaan, aesthetic value (beauty), dan ketauhidan kepada Tuhan yang Maha Esa. Macam mana pula tu?

Di dalam arabesque sebagai contoh, di permukaan sekeping tile yang akan di pasang menjadi dinding masjid, sistem pengiraan melibatkan geometri yang tertentu, yang tepat dari segi simetri, ukuran dan sebagainya di lakarkan di atas tile tersebut dan daripadanya terhasillah corak dekorasi yang menarik. Bagi pengkarya seni Islam ulung zaman dahulu, lakaran geometri2 yang berserabut ini hanya di lakukan melalui imaginasi mereka sahaja. Ini kerana, para pengkarya seni Islam tulen di zaman dahulu biasanya akan menguasai pelbagai disiplin ilmu dan bukan terbatas hanya kepada sesuatu bidang sahaja. Pelukis tile untuk hiasan masjid ini biasanya menguasai ilmu geometri sehingga setiap satu daripada tile2 lukisan tangan mereka hampir 100% identical. (saya pernah menghadiri workshop bagaimana nak menghasilkan corak arabesque step by step daripada geometri asas sehingga terhasilnya sebuah karya, susah jugak). Begitu juga dengan penulis2 manuskrip lama, mereka kena memahami ‘sains’ kerana mereka perlu menghasilkan warna2 yang mereka kehendaki daripada campuran bahan2 semulajadi seperti pokok2, mineral tertentu etc.(pigment), ini kerana ‘Buncho’ tiada lagi ketika itu.

Selain daripada itu, Arabesque juga boleh di takrifkan sebagai bentuk corak rumit yang berulang2/ berangkai2. Pengulangan corak rumit secara berterusan, di tambah lagi dengan kreativiti pengkarya dari segi pemilihan bentuk, warna dan sebagainya akhirnya dapat menghasilkan karya seni dan pemandangan yang cukup indah. Di sini pula, terpulang kepada pengkarya tersebut untuk mengembangkan prinsip seni, ideology, agenda masing2. Dengan lain perkataan, apa sahajalah 'cerita' yang mahu mereka sampaikan melalui karya tersebut (dan mungkin hanya pengkarya sahaja yang tahu).

Akan tetapi terdapat satu maksud atau satu philosophy yang tidak boleh di pinggirkan di sebalik arabesque ini, especially bagi mereka yang benar2 melihat dan memahami melalui mata hati. Ianya ialah kesan daripada pengulangan yang berterusan ini tidak akan melahirkan perasaan awalan atau pun akhiran. Ianya menggambarkan kesinambungan yang berlarutan, dan ini sebenarnya juga melambangkan sifat Allah yang tiada permulaan dan pengakhiran. Walaupun penyataan bahawa dekorasi arabesque boleh menguatkan tauhid umat Islam kelihatan terlalu simple, pedebatan pakar2 kesenian Islam kebanyakkannya tidak menafikan ‘keajaiban’ arabesque ini dan peranannya di dalam menyeru ketauhidan umat kepada Tuhan.

PLUS: Term Arabesque mengikut sejarahnya di berikan oleh 'orang2 yang berkulit putih' kepada orang Islam atau Arab (takat ni aku tak sure), dan asalnya term ini mempunyai negative connotation/ term of insult.

LOVE, TAJ MAHAL, AND THE TRUTH.

Antara tugasan dan tanggungjawab saya adalah menyampaikan cerita, dan dalam masa yang sama berharapan agar sedikit sebanyak dapat educate people yang datang ke tempat saya berkerja. Berdiri di sisi model replika Taj Mahal di galeri Architecture, sambil saya ‘mengoreng’ sama ada pelajar, student ipt, ahli2 akademik, seniman, orang2 kenamaan mahupun pemimpin negara luar, saya masih ada sedikit sceptic untuk menceritakan satu bab dalam sejarah popular Taj Mahal yang terletak di Agra India; kisah lambang cinta Shah Jahan dengan Mumtaz Mahalnya, dan biasanya saya akan cerita benda ni paling last sekali.

Betulkah Shah Jahan mengarahkan 20, 000 artisan dan pekerja membina Taj Mahal semata2 sebagai lambang kasih dan cintanya kepada Mumtaz Mahal? Perlukah bangunan besar 'bagak' ini di bina semata2 untuk menempatkan makam Mumtaz Mahal? Over-expressive sungguhkah Shah Jahan ini seperti hero2 filem Bollywood sehingga sanggup mengerah tenaga rakyat untuk membina Taj Mahal demi menyatakan rasa cinta agungnya kepada Mumtaz Mahal? Dan banyak lagi persoalan yang seumpamanya berlegar2 kat kepala saya.

Kalau dari segi pengkajian ilmiah, banyak pendapat yang berbeza di berikan oleh para academician untuk menafikan fakta2 sejarah cinta popular ini. Ada yang mengatakan bahawa Taj Mahal asalnya merupakan Istana Raja Mansingh, seorang raja Hindu yang kemudiannya di jadikan makam persemadian isteri Shah Jahan oleh Shah Jahan sendiri. Jenazah Mumtaz Mahal di pindahkan di Taj Mahal selepas enam bulan isterinya bersemadi di Burhanpur (pendedahan di jurnal Royal Institute of British Architects 1980). Semenjak 1964 lagi, seorang Professor bernama P. N. Oak sudah mengatakan bahawa Taj Mahal originally as a Hindu Palace. Pengkajian terhadap chronicle Badshahnama (a Muslim chronicle written during the reign of Shah Jahan) yang bertulisan Parsi pula tidak sekali2 menyebut tentang Taj Mahal, dan pengkajian ini telah berlaku semenjak tahun 1860’ an lagi. Di tambah lagi dengan persoalan2 lain yang di timbulkan seperti nama Mahal berasal daripada Mahaleyo, a Shiva temple, sehingga kepada nama Mumtaz Mahal sendiri yang nama sebenarnya adalah Mumtaz al-Zamani turut di persoalkan. Tapi ini semua adalah pandangan academician barat yang mungkin ada kaitannya dengan politik dan agenda2 mereka tersendiri dan sebagainya. Mungkin kita perlu pula melihat perspektif daripada golongan academician yang lain. Tadak masalah, sejarah itukan dinamik.

Dalam isu Taj Mahal sebagai lambang cinta antara Shah Jahan kepada Mumtaz Mahal, saya cuba melihatnya pula dengan perspektif yang berbeza, di mana mungkin Taj Mahal yang dibina Shah Jahan bukan sahaja di dirikan semata2 untuk meyemadikan arwah isterinya. Taj Mahal juga bukan semata2 sebagai ekspresi betapa besarnya cinta Shah Jahan. Tetapi dengan pembinaan Taj Mahal ini, mungkin Shah Jahan mahu memberitahu dunia dan generasi akan datang bahawa Shah Jahan masih berdiri utuh sebagai seorang Maharaja Mughal India, dan menyambung tradisi Maharaja2 sebelumnya dengan membina binaan2 gah dan mewah, walaupun ketika itu dia di uji dengan kematian isteri tercintanya (pemerintah kerajaan Islam Mughal di India mempunyai historical consciousness yang kuat, tidak seperti pemerintah Hindu di India). Isterinya pula di berikan penghormatan dengan dimakamkan di tempat yang indah dan selamat. Akan tetapi, saya juga tidak menafikan Taj Mahal mungkin juga berakar umbikan cinta Shah Jahan kepada isterinya seperti yang biasa kita ketahui. Ini kerana saya percaya kerana cinta manusia berkeupayaan membuat apa2 sahaja. Walau bagaimana pun, rahsia cinta antara dua orang manusia sebenarnya hanya di ketahui oleh dua sosok manusia tersebut. Rahsia cinta Shah Jahan dan Mumtaz Mahal, hanya mereka berdua yang telah bersemadi sebelah menyebelah di dalam Taj Mahal itu sajalah yang mengetahuinya. Dan sebenarnya, hanya Allah sahajalah yang maha mengetahui kisah cinta Shah Jahan dan Mumtaz Mahal. As an outsider, kita tiada kata putus.

Dengan adanya cerita romantic Shah Jahan dan Mumtaz Mahal jugalah menyebabkan lahirnya beberapa persoalan seperti ini yang biasa di tanya kepada saya, “Taj Mahal ni mausoleum ke Masjid?”, “Boleh sembahyang tak kat Taj Mahal?”. Untuk memilih jalan selamat, biasanya saya menyatakan bahawa orang Islam boleh sujud di mana2 pun di setiap inci bumi Allah ini (mesti bersih, ikut syarat, rukun, etc.) untuk bersembahyang. Tadak hal, Islam itu tidak menyulitkan penganutnya.

PLUS: Is Shah Jahan is an expressive or inexpressive husband in expressing his love to his wife Mumtaz Mahal? Is he using words or symbols, or both? No need to answer that.

AL-MUQADDIMAH

"This blog is officially created on 17th June 2010"